Ei^lisl? 



Syptax 



Richardson, 




LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

Qfot. ®o?yi# m 

Shelf .3^A.] 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



THE PRINCIPLES 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 



WILLIAM RICHARDSON, A.M., Ph.D. 



A 3 2 7 & X 

CLEVELAND, O.: 

THE WILLIAMS PUBLISHING CO. 

1892. 



1M 



Copyrighted, 1892, 
By William Richardson. 






This little book appears in response to many urgent re- 
quests from friends who, at some time, have been under 
the author's tuition or supervision, and who believe, with 
him, that instruction in English grammar may be much 
simplified; that often too much time is spent in going over 
unimportant details in parsing and analysis; and that the 
ability to illustrate synthetically every principle of syntax, 
and to correct any violation thereof, is of greater value 
than is generally considered. 



INDEX. 



Abridgment 17 

Adjective — Used Abstractly 9 

Limiting Phrase or Clause 9 

For Adverb 9 

" As Noun 9 

Limiting Complex Nouns 9 

Predicate 9 

Adverb— Uses 13-14 

Adverbial Objective 8 

Analysis 19 

Antique Forms 27 

Alike— Uses 28 

As— Uses 29 

As— If (ellipsis) 23 

As— As, So— As 26 

Apposition 4 

" with Phrase or Clause 5 

But 31 

Conjunction— Co-ordinate 15-26 

Subordinate 16 

Correlative 26 

Connectives 16-23 

Copula 22 

Copulative Verbs 23 

Complex Verbs 14 

Clause— Uses 20 

Object 6 

Double Object 6 

Double Relative 17-18 

Elements — Kinds 21 

For— Introductory 33 



11. INDEX. 

How — Adjective 23-34 

" Adverb 35 

Independent Case 3 

Like 8-23-36 

Make— Factitive 7 

Nominative Case l_o-3-5 

Object— Direct 6 

" Double 6 

" Indirect 6 

" Without Governing Word 8 

" With Passive Voice 7 

" Kindred Signification 7 

Objective— Subject and Predicate 3 

Ought 39 

Only 38 

Participles— Uses 10 

Possessive — Of Ownership 4 

" By Apposition 5 

" Without Sign 5 

Phrase— Uses 6-21 

" Inseparable 21 

Possessive Pronouns 34 

Prepositions— List 24 

Uses 15 

Pronouns — Agreement 8 

Sentence — Kinds 19-20 

Since 40 

So 41 

Synthesis 19 

Than 41 

Verbs— Factitive 7 

" Agreement 11-12 

Infinitive 12-13 

What 18-43 

Which 18-44 

Whatever 18 



THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 



The following principles of construction are observed by the 
best writers of the English language, and are, therefore, the 
Rules of Syntax. 

RULE I. 

The subject of a finite verb must be in tne nominative case. 

1. The subject may be placed before the verb. 
" The day is dawning." 

" Man goeth forth to his work." 

2. The subject may be placed after the verb. 
" Go thou to the ant." 

"Straight is the gate, and narrow is the way." 
"There was a man in the land of Uz." 

3. The subject may be placed after the first auxiliary. 
" Can mortal man be more just than God ? " 

41 What did he say ? " 

4. The subject may be a word. 
"The snow falls." 

"Seeing is believing." 

5. The subject ma}- be a phrase. 
"To see is to believe." 

" To seek preferment is the privilege of American citizens." 

6. The subject may be a clause. 

"That you have wronged me doth appear in this." 



2 THE PRINCIPLES OF 

"Whence he received such information is a matter of 
interest to the court." 
11 For me to labor and for you to be idle would be unjust." 

RULE II. 

A noun or pronoun used with a finite verb to form the predi- 
cate of a sentence must be in the nominative case. 

1. The predicate nominative may be a word. 
" Thou art the man." 

" And am I he that is thus accused ? " 

" He returned a friend, who came a foe." 

" She looked a goddess, and she walked a queen." 

"Arnold was called a traitor." 

"Art thou that traitor angel ? " 

" I w r as eves to the blind, and feet was I to the lame." 

" Do you know who she is ? " 

" Tis most just that thou turn rascal." 

" The prisoner is supposed to be a murderer? " 

2. The predicate nominative may be a phrase. 
" To be good is to be happy." 

" To rise high in noble citizenship is to honor Him who hath 
given power and privilege to man." 

" To purpose is not necessarily to propose." 
" To be friendless is to be without friends." 

3. The predicate nominative may be a clause. 
" The truth is that I am tired of ticking." 

" The question is, Where shall we obtain witnesses? " 
"The motion before the house is understood to be, 'That 
hereafter no base-ball games be allowed to be played on Sun- 
day. 1 " 

4. In many abridged forms of expression, the finite verb 
gives place to a participle, the subject of the finite verb becom- 
ing a possessive before the participle, or being omitted. In such 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 6 

cases the predicate nominative remains a nominative, thus 

forming an exception to the rule. 
" His being an Englishman was greatly in his favor." 
" They were ridiculed for being a peculiar people." 
"The atrocious crime of being a young man I shall attempt 

neither to palliate nor to deny." 
" How many are injured by Adam's fall, who know nothing 

of there ever having been such a man in the world ! " 
"This our Saviour Himself was pleased to use as the 

strongest argument of His being the promised Messiah." 
" I had a suspicion of the fellow's being a swindler." 
"Who then can bear the thought of being an outcast from 

his presence?" 

5. When the sentence is abridged in the form of the " nomi- 
native independent, or absolute, with a participle," the noun 

in the predicate is in the same case. 
" Webster being a recognized authority, we consulted him." 
" Addison being an author of the purest English, we advised 

the class to imitate his style." 

RULE III. 
The subject of an infinitive must be in the objective case. 
" We have known Mr. Gough to cause tears and laughter at 
almost the same instant." 
"All wished him to repeat the lecture." 
" They supposed him to have gone by another route." 
"The officers thought the man to be guilty." 

RULE IV. 
A noun or pronoun used with an infinitive to form the 
predicate must be in the objective case. 
4 I supposed you to have been the man." 
'" They thought it to be me." 



4 THE PRINCIPLES OF 

" Did you suspect it to have been us ? " 

" Thev believed the author to be an American." 

(When the objective is not expressed before the infinitive, 

analogy would require a noun or pronoun in the predicate 

to be in the objective. ) 
"To affect to be a lord in one's closet would be a 

romantic madness." 
"To be a good man is not so easy a thing as some may 

suppose." 
"To be an Englishman in London, a Spaniard in Madrid, a 

Frenchman in Paris, is no easy matter." 
*• It is better to be a scholar than a gamester." 
" For me to be a skeptic would be quite as hard as for you 

to be a believer." 

[Note. — Rules II. and IV. may with propriety be given asfol- 
lows: — " A noun or pronoun in the predicate must be in the 
same ease as its subject."] 

RULE V. 

A noun or pronoun used to limit the meaning of a noun 
denoting a different person or thing must be in the possess- 
ive case. 

" Our country's history is interesting to foreigners." 

President Lincoln's proclamation. 

"Our help cometh from the Lord, whose right hand doeth 
wondrous things." 

RULE VI. 

A noun or pronoun used to limit the meaning of a noun or 
pronoun denoting the same person or thing, must be in the 
same case by apposition. 

" Webster, the orator, was contemporaneous with Calhoun, 
the statesman." 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 5 

"Webster the statesman's home was at Marshfield, Mass." 
" This is Mrs. Brown, she that was Daisy Fay." 
"We, the people of the United States." 
"Ye men of Athens." 

" For Herodias' sake, his brother Philip's wife." 
"Call at.Lansing, the druggist's." 
"Your service as matron is no longer needed." 
His success as an author is already established." 
"The story of Lincoln as a flat-boat man somewhat 
resembles that of Garfield as a canal boy." 
"We should favor each other." 
" They love one another." 

[Note. — A noun may be in apposition with a phrase or a 
sentence. It is then nominative.] 

" By constant use of the crayon in illustration, a habit 
which was peculiar to him, he became an expert artist." 

" He allowed me the use of his laboratory, a favor I greatly 
appreciated." 

"Just as we entered the harbor the boat struck a sand-bar — 
a most unfortunate circumstance." 

RULE VII. 

A noun or pronoun used independently must be in the 
nominative case. 

" Rome ! the eternal city." 

"0 Rome! thou eternal city." 

"Come, Thou Fount of every blessing." 

" Your fathers — where are they ? And the prophets — do they 
live forever?" 

"0 rare we! " 

"Ah! luckless I." 

" The storm having ceased, we continued our work." 



b THE PRINCIPLES OF 

"Ahorse! ahorse! my kingdom for a horse!" 
" To be or not to be — that is the question." 
"Webster's Dictionary." 

RULE VIII. 

Transitive verbs in the active voice govern the objective 
case. 

1. The object may be a word. 

"Heaven helps those who help themselves." 
" God loves a cheerful giver." 

2. The object may be a phrase. 
" Boys like to swim." 

"Monarchies pretend to believe that republics are short- 
lived." 
"The pupils desire to be promoted." 

3. The object may be a clause. 

"Thou canst not tell whence it eomcth nor whitheritgoeth." 

" I know that my Redeemer liveth." 

" All said that love had suffered wrong." 

4. Verbs signifying to name, to call, to choose, to elect, to 
appoint, to style, to consider, etc., may take two objects 
representing the same person or thing, called the double object. 

"They named the child John, but called him Jack." 

" They have chosen Mr. Smith umpire." 

"Will the citizens elect Mr. Sullivan mayor ? " 

"The governor has appointed Mr. Miller commissioner." 

" The English style their monarch queen." 

5. Verbs signifying to ask, to tell, to give, to buy, to do, 
etc., may take an indirect object. 

"The pupils gave their teacher a book." 
" We will ask him some questions." 
" Will you do me a favor ? " 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 7 

[Note. — The indirect object may be preceded by to or for, 
and may, with propriety, be considered the object of the 
preposition, instead of the indirect object of the verb.] 

6. The transitive verbs to ask, to deny, to refuse, to show, 
to teach, and others of kindred meaning, may be followed, in 
the passive voice, by an objective, thus forming an exception 
to the rule. 

"The traveler was refused shelter." 
"The children were denied admittance." 
"Visitors to the cave are shown the path by a native of the 
mountains." 
" The class has been taught the catechism." 

7. A few verbs, commonly intransitive, may take an object 
of kindred signification. 

" To live the life of the righteous." 
"To die the death of a saint." 
"Leap now thy last leap." 

8. The transitive verb to make and others of like significa- 
tion, are often used in a factitive sense with an adjective, 
which latter also modifies the object. 

" The carpenter has made the door wider." 

" Practice tends to make one perfect." 

" Sleeplessness will render a strong man insane." 

[Note. — "Has made wider" is really a unite in idea, signify- 
ing to widen. So, likewise, "to make perfect" and "will 
render insane." Such being the case, it is well to treat these 
expressions as complex verbs, and the objects as governed by 
them.] 

RULE IX. 

Prepositions govern the objective case. 
" We shall go to him, but he will never return to us." 
"James came from Cincinnati to Cleveland on Thursday, 
the third of March, and will remain during the spring." 



8 THE PRINCIPLES OF 

[Note. — Nouns following like and unlike a:e ^w\erned by the 
preposition to understood. Many authors prefer to consider 
like a preposition. 

RULE X. 

Xouns denoting time, direction, distance or measure, after 
verbs and adjectives, arein the objective case, used adverbially. 
" The army marched fifteen miles." 
" Wheat is worth one dollar a bushel." 
" Can ye not watch with me one hour ? " 
" The building is to be six stories high." 

[Note. — All expressions illustrative of the above rule are 
adverbial modifiers, hence the propriety of the "adverbial 
objective." 

RULE XI. 

Pronouns must agree with their antecedents in gender, 

number and person. 
" The pencils that are used are excellent." 
"Who do men say that I, the Son of Man, am? " 
"Will you lend me the book which gives an account of 

Salem Witchcraft ? " 
"I who am but a youth. You who are aged." 

RULE XII. 

A pronoun with two or more antecedents in the singular, 
connected by or or nor, must be singular. 
"Will Ned or Harry bring me his slate ? " 
"If thy hand or thy foot offend thee, cut it off." 

RULE XIII. 

A pronoun with two or more antecedents in the singular 
connected by and, must be in the plural number. 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 9 

"William and Mary are to occupy the throne of their 
ancestors." 
"The dog and the horse know their master." 

RULE XIV. 

An adjective or a participle may be used to modify some 
noun or pronoun, or may have the construction of a noun. 

"The verdant lawn, the shady grove, the variegated land- 
scape." 

1. The adjective may be used as a predicate. 
"The houses on the avenue are elegant." 

" To use alcoholic beverages is dangerous." 
"The lake is attractive." 

2. The adjective may be used to limit a noun and adjective 
combined. 

"The venerable old man. 11 
" The ripe old wine." 

3. The adjective may be used as a noun. 

" The good and the wise, the thoughtful and the indifferent." 
"The dead were soon buried, and the wounded borne to 
the hospital." 

4. The adjective may be used abstractly. 
" To be good is to be happy." 

"To be dutiful is to be obedient." 

5. The adjective may be used to limit a clause. 

" It is advisable that ladies should be chosen as delegates to 
the convention." 

6. The adjective may be used to limit a phrase. 
" To be falsely accused is unjust." 

7. The adjective may, by poetic license, perform the office of 
an adverb. 

" Thev fall successive and successive rise." 



10 THE PRINCIPLES OF 

8. The participle, retaining its verbal properties, may relate 
to some noun or pronoun, It is then placed alter its noun. 

"The men digging for diamonds were subjected to a dis- 
agreeable espionage." 

" The army, having been driven back, became little less than 
a mob." 

" The water came rushing down through the valley." 

" The tornado went roaring through the forest." 

"The court has the witnesses summoned." 

9. The participle, divested of the idea of time, may become 
a participial adjective. It is then placed before its noun. 

" Flowing water is generally pure." 

"The wounded soldiers were taken to the hospital." 

10. The participle may be used as a noun. 
"The teacher was engaged in calling the roll." 
"Walking is more healthful than riding." 

" His being arrested was unfortunate." 

" Most of the part}- enjoyed swimming and rowing." 

" The surgeons were caring for the wounded." 

11. The participle may be used abstractly. 

" Looking at the subject from the standpoint of a scholar, 
the conclusion reached is still more amazing." 

12. The participles provided, seeing, etc., may be used as 
conjunctions. 

' You shall have the money provided you furnish security." 
"Wherefore, seeing we also are compassed about with so 
great a cloud of witnesses, let us lay aside every weight, etc." 
The participles concerning, regarding, touching, pending, 
etc., ma} 7 be used as prepositions. 
" The orator said nothing concerning the tariff." 
"There is no information regarding the Bering Sea contro- 
versy." 
"As touching the law, a Pharisee." 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 11 

"The committee asked for an adjournment pending the 
negotiations." 

The participles passing, exceeding, etc., may be used as ad- 
verbs. 

"And passing rich with forty pounds a year." 

" An exceeding great reward." 

RULE XV. 

A finite verb must agree with its subject in number and per- 
son. 
"The bird flies." 
"The birds fly." 

" A thousand years in Thy sight are but as yesterday." 
" It is delightful to hunt and to fish." 
"Who am I? What art thou ? " 
"To live in hearts we leave behind is not to die." 

RULE XVI. 

A finite verb with two or more subjects in the singular, con- 
nected by and, must be plural. 

" Night and day are both alike unto Thee." 
"William and Mary ascend the throne." 

1. If two singular nominatives connected by and represent 
unit}', the verb must be singular. 

14 In every campaign arises a hue and cry." 

"Webster is dead — the great orator and statesman is dead." 

2. If two singular nominatives connected by and are em- 
phatically distinguished, the verb must be singular. 

" Ambition, and not the safety of the state, was concerned." 

3. If two or more singular nominatives connected by and 
are preceded by each or every, a singular verb is required. 

" Every worm and every insect is a marvel of creative power." 



12 THE PRINCIPLES OF 

4. If two or more nominatives have different numbers, and 
are emphatically distinguished, the verb should agree with the 
first. 

"Adherence to the right, and not the rewards of office, is 
an honest man's aim ! " 

5. If two or more nominatives differ in person, the verb 
should agree with the first rather than the second or third 
person, and with the second rather than the third. If they are 
connected by or or nor, the verb should agree with the nearest 
nominative. The second person should precede others in 
position, and the first person should be placed last. 

11 You, Ned, and I have finished our task." 

11 You and he have excelled the others." 

" Ralph or his friends are to secure the stock." 

RULE XVII. 

A finite verb with two or more subjects in the singular, con- 
nected by or or nor, should be singular. 
" The Pearl or the Reindeer leaves to-night for Put-in-Bav. ' 
2. If the subjects are of different persons or numbers, the 
verb should agree with the nearest. 
*' Either you or I am to play that part." 
11 Neither you nor he is required to attend every session." 
•"Neither Clay nor Webster was appreciated in his day." 

RULE XVIII. 
1. The infinitive may be used as a noun in the nominative 
or the objective case. 
"To purpose is not necessarily to propose." 
"The army was about to march." 
" Boys like to swim." 
"To lie is often improperly used for to lay." 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 13 

" Blind Tom can do nothing except to play the piano. " 

2. The infinitive may be used as an adjective. 

" The harvest to be gathered and the flocks and herds to be 
watched will demand our attention." 

"The problems are to be solved by noon." 

" The artist is said to be skillful." 

" The officer was known to be a graduate of West Point." 

" The guide seemed to be acquainted with the history of the 
place." 

3. The infinitive may be used as an adverb. 
"Our friends have come to visit us." 

"Many questions are easy to ask, but difficult to answer." 
" The child walks too slowly to keep pace with his father." 
"The pupils are anxious to learn, but will be glad to have 
vacation come." 

4. The infinitive may be used abstractly. 

" To make the story short, the boy was ruined by reading 
bad literature." 

5. The infinitive may be used as the predicate of an objective. 
"The soldiers never knew General Grant to boast of his 

success." 
[See Rule III.] 

6. The infinitive may be used as an appositive to a noun. 
" Delightful task ! To rear the tender thought." 

[Note.— After bid, dare, let, make, hear, see and feel, and 
after need in negative expressions, the sign to, of the infinitive, 
is generally omitted.] 

RULE XIX. 

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, adverbs, phrases and 
clauses ; and may be used independently. 
1. " The pupils study diligentW." 
" The waterfowl guides his course northward." 



14 THE PRINCIPLES OF 

2. " The dog is the most faithful of all animals." 

11 The truly great are found in every condition of life." 

3. "The omnibus moves far too slowly to satisfy the public." 
"The party returned very soon after receiving the sad 

intelligence." 

4. "Close to the realm where angels had their birth, just 
on the border of the spirit land." 

[Note. — The preposition in a phrase sometimes receives the 
force of the adverb; as, "Do not come much before noon." 
"He does not rank greatly above ordinary monarchs."] 

5. "Truly, God is good to Israel." 
" And verily, thou shalt be fed." 

6. "Moreover, the dogs came and licked his sores." 
" However, I shall accept his invitation." 

" Forever— never ; never— forever." 

" Yes, success is now within our reach." 

"Nay, verily; such prophecy can never be fulfilled." 

7. The adverb may be used as a noun. 

" Till then, nor is my boasting vain : 
Till then I boast a Saviour slain." 

"None, except him who cometh down from above." 
"Until now I have believed the prisoner innocent." 

8. The adverb there may be used simply to introduce a 
sentence, and is then called an expletive. 

"There were two pilots at the wheel." 

"There was a man in the land of Uz whose name was Job." 

9. The adverb may modify the entire predicate. 
"Then they were happy, but now they are sorrowful." 

10. The adverb may help to form a complex verb. 
"To tear up the pavement." 

"To burn up the papers." 
"To shut up the store." 
"To shut down the works." 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 15 

RULE XX. 

A preposition shows the relation of its object to that word 
which leads to its use. 

" William came from Boston to Cleveland in March, and will 
remain during the summer." 

"The walk was high in the middle, but low on both sides." 

"Some fishes in Mammoth Cave have no eyes." 

[Note. — A preposition may be used simply to introduce a 
phrase, j. e., as an expletive.] 

" For man to indulge in the illusions of hope is natural." 
" For me to labor and for you to be idle would be unjust." 

RULE XXI. 

Coordinate conjunctions join similar elements. 

" The North and the South — thou hast created them." 

" The deer runs gracefully and swiftly." 

"The true statesman is wise in counsel and bold in the 
declaration of his convictions." 

"The city is situated between the mountains and at the 
confluence of the rivers." 

" You may take the book, but you must not lend it." 

" If human things went ill or well, 
If changing empires rose or fell, 
The morning passed, the evening came, 
And found this couple still the same." 

RULE XXII. 

Subordinate conjunctions join dissimilar elements. 
"The pupils study that they may learn." 
"They will accomplish much if they are diligent." 
"Take heed lest ye enter into temptation." 
" We are wiser than the ancients." 



16 THE PRINCIPLES OF 

[Note. — The subordinate conjunction may be used simply to 
introduce a sentence; as, "That the Egyptians were advanced 
in science is evident."] 

RULE XXIII. 

Relative pronouns and conjunctive adverbs serve as sub- 
ordinate connectives. 

" Not all that glitters is gold." 

" You who are in favor will say, 'Aye.' " 

" There is a place where all will meet." 
' "There are times when silence is eloquent." 

" Come as the winds come when navies are stranded." 

RULE XXIV. 

An interjection has no dependence on other words. 
Pshaw! Bravo! Alas! Indeed! 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 17 



ABRIDGMENT. 

1. "I do not know where to find it." 

2. " Tell me when to come." 

3. " Show us how to do the examples." 

"Conjunctive adverbs," as the words imply, have both an 
adverbial and a conjunctive force. They are often used in 
elliptical expressions. The ellipsis should be supplied before 
analyzing; thus: 

" I do not know where [I am] to find it." 

" Tell me when [I am] to come." 

Clauses may be abridged by the use of the infinitive or the 
participle; thus: 

"The officers supposed that the man was guilty." 

"The officers supposed the man to be guilty." 

"The officers had no doubt of his being guilty." 



THE DOUBLE OR COMPOUND RELATIVE. 

A relative pronoun which sustains two relations in a 
sentence, i. e., is nominative to two different verbs, not com- 
pound ; or, object of two different verbs, not compound ; 
or, nominative to one verb and object of another verb, 
is a Double Relative. It may with propriety be called 
" Compound." The pronouns called "compound " by authors 
are compound in form and use; as, whoever, whatever, etc. 

Who and which, simple in form, are also used in acompound 



18 THE PRLNCIPLES OF 

or double relation. They should, therefore, be called "double 
relatives." What, as a relative pronoun, is always double. 

1. " What was done was well done." 

2. " Whoever performs the ceremony will be criticised. " 

3. " Whoso doeth well shall be rewarded." 

4. " Show me which you selected." 

1 . " We know who are coming." 

2. " What was completed they accepted." 

3. " Whatever is most pleasing to you he shall do." 

4. " W r hosoever cometh unto me I will in no wise cast out." 

1. " We liked what the speaker said." 

2. " All knew whom the committee had invited." 

3. " Buy whatever you need." 

4. " Show me which he prefers." 

5. "Whatsoever ye would that men should do unto you, 
do ye even so unto them." 

Resolving these double relatives into antecedents and 
relatives, we find the subordinate connective in the latter. 

The double relative often becomes an adjective, and thus 
lends its force to a noun. 

1. "What books were bought were acceptable." 

2. " Whatever fruit is salable may be received." 

3. " Bring whichever instrument you prefer." 

4. " You should keep what money you have saved." 

5. " Whatever pictures you prefer will, no doubt, please all." 

6. " The clerk showed me which books had been selected." 
It is seen that nouns in the above examples sustain a 

"double" relation. 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 19 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

1. Analysis is the separation of a sentence into its elements. 

2. Syn thesis is the opposite of analysis — the construction of 
sentences from words, phrases and clauses. 

3. A sentence is a combination of a subject and a predicate 
it is an assemblage of words making complete sense. 

"Water flows." 

" The lilies of the valley are beautiful flowers." 

4. A principal sentence makes complete sense when used 
alone. 

" Washington was our first president." 

5. A subordinate sentence does not, in itself, make com- 
plete sense, but has some subordinate part in another sentence. 

" If ye love me, keep my commandments." 

6. A declarative sentence is one that affirms or denies. 
" The breezes from the lake are cool and refreshing." 

7. An interrogative sentence is one that asks a question. 
" When will the cruel war be over ? " 

8. An imperative sentence expresses a command or an 
entreaty. 

11 Enter ye in at the strait gate." 
"Do not trouble me now." 

9. An exclamatory sentence expresses an exclamation or 
strong emotion. 

"How dreadful is the fate of the Siberian exiles! " 



20 THE PRINCIPLES OF 

10. A clause is a sentence that forms a part of another 
sentence. 

(a.) A compound clause consists of two or more like clauses 
joined by a coordinate conjunction. 

"The novels which Scott wrote, and which are read the 
world over." 

(b.) A complex clause is a combination of two or more 
unlike clauses. 

''The prince expressed a desire that the party should visit 
Niagara, which is said to afford the most magnificent scenery 
of America." 

11. A compound sentence is a combination of two or more 
like sentences; /. e., sentences of equal rank. They are joined 
by coordinate conjunctions. 

"The storm raged along the coast, and many staunch 
vessels were wrecked." 

12. A complex sentence is a combination of sentences 
of unequal rank ; /. e., of principal and subordinate clauses. 

"When the wind is high the lake is rough." 

13. The clause may have the following uses 
(a.) The subject of a sentence. 

"Who was the author of 'The Bread Winners ' has not been 
clearly established." 

(b.) The predicate of a sentence. 

"The truth is, I am tired of ticking." 

(c.) An adjective element. 

"The houses which were built in Queen Anne's time werenot 
like those which appeared a century later." 

(d.) An adverbial element. 

" Strike ! till the last armed foe expires." 

(e.) An objective element. 

"Dost thou know where wisdom is found?" 

(f.) An attendant element. 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 21 

" But where the money is to be obtained — that, sir, seems to 
be the all important question." 

14. A phrase is a preposition and its object or a verb in the 
infinitive mode; as, "In the harbor;" "by the pier;" "to 
break ; " "to gather." 

A phrase may have the following uses : 

(a.) The subject and the predicate of a sentence. 

"To retreat at that moment would have been criminal." 

"To lay an Atlantic cable, or to invent the telephone is to 
inscribe one's name among the great men of earth." 

(b.) An adjective element. 

" The work to be done requires a skillful hand." 

" Ours to enjoy, ours to preserve, ours to transmit." 

(c.) An adverbial element. 

"Children should read to store their minds with useful 
knowledge." 

" The works of the old masters are difficult to copy." 

" The boat moves too slowly to overtake the steamer." 

(d.) An objective element. 

" All like to succeed in their undertakings." 

" The Indians wished to retain their hunting grounds." 

(e.) An attendant element. 

" To be or not to be — that is the question." 

15. An inseparable phrase is a combination of two or 
more words which convey a simple idea. It is treated as one 
word; as, "By and by;" "neck by neck;" "shoulder to 
shoulder;" "at last;" "by the way;" "up there;" "down 
here." 

[The term phrase has also a broader and more indefinite 
meaning than is here given.] 

16. An element is one of the component parts of a sentence. 

17. A compound element is a combination of like elements. 
They are joined by a coordinate conjunction. 



22 THE PRINCIPLES OF 

"Books or slates." "Tall and graceful." "Slowly and 
sadly." " On the hill-tops and in the valleys." " Trees which 
grow rapidly and furnish abundant shade." 

18. A complex element is a combination of unlike elements. 
"A very becoming garment." "A generally successful 

angler." " The child writes entirely too fast." 

19. Principal elements are such as perform the office of sub- 
ject or predicate. 

20. Subordinate elements are such as are used to limit or 
modify. 

21. Attendant elements are nouns or pronouns in the 
absolute case, or mere expletives. 

22. Adjective elements are such as limit nouns or pronouns. 

23. Objective elements are such as express what or whom 
after transitive verbs. 

24. Adverbial elements are such as limit verbs, expressing 
any relation except what or whom, and such as limit adjec- 
tives, adverbs, phrases and clauses. 

25. The subject of a sentence is the word, phrase or clause 
about which something is asserted. 

26. The predicate of a sentence is the word, phrase or 
clause expressing what is asserted of the subject. 

[Note. — The term "attribute" is preferred by many to 
express that word, phrase or clause which is used with the 
copula to form the "predicate."] 

The general copula is the verb to be. Any intransitive or 
passive verb that is, in its use, resolvable into to be, may per- 
form the office of the copula, and thus become a "copulative 
verb." The verb to be\s sometimes added to the finite verb 
thus used. 

27. In the following examples the interrogative adjective 
how and the adjectives in the answers are predicate adjectives, 
the verbs being copulative : 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 23 

" How does the picture look ? — Beautiful." 

" How does the music sound ? — Soft." 

"How does the quinine taste? — Bitter." 

" How does the rose smell ? — Sweet." 

" How does the velvet feel? — Smooth." 

"How does the child seem? — Health}-." 

"How is the artist considered ? — Capable." 

"How are you, Ned?— Well." 

"How do you do, Ned? — Better/' 

28. In the following, like is a predicate adjective; or, 
regarding like as a preposition, which many authors prefer, 
the phrase introduced by like is a predicate-adjective phrase. 

"The child looks like his father." 

"The fruit tastes like an orange." 

"The cloth feels like silk." 

" The instrument sounds like a bugle." 

" The flowers smell like pinks." 

"The odor is like musk." 

" Prince Napoleon was said to be like his father." 

" The painting is supposed to be like the original." 

"The orator seemed like a sincere man." 

"To be like the noblest of the noble should be the ambition 
of youth." 

Verbs expressive of the senses, and some other copulative 
verbs, are often followed by predicate-adjective clauses. 

" You look as if you would faint." 

"The bell sounds as if it were cracked." 

"The cake tasts as if it were burnt." 

The elliptical clause between as and if is adjective. If as and 
if are taken together as a complex conjunction, then they 
introduce an adjective clause. If the ellipsis is supplied, the 
clause introduced bv if is adverbial. 



24 



THE PRINCIPLES OF 



LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 



Abaft. 


Amidst. 


Aloft. 


Aboard. 


Among. 


Afore. 


About. 


Amongst. 


Adown. 


Above. 


Anear. 


Aloof. 


Across. 


Around. 


Aslant. 


A down. 


Aslant. 


As to. 


After. 


Astride. 


According to. 


Against. 


At. 


Aboard of. 


Along. 


Athwart. 


As for. 


Amid. 


Alongside. 


Along with. 


Before. 


Beside. 


But. 


Behind. 


Besides. 


By. 


Below. 


Between. 


Because of. 


Beneath. 


Betwixt. 
Beyond. 


But for. 


Concerning. Contrary 


to. 


Despite. 


During. 
Down. 


Devoid of. 


Ere. 


Except. 


Excepting. 


For. 


From between. 


From beside. 


From. 


From near. 


From under. 


From aboard. 


From off. 


From over. 


From among. 


From under. 


From across. 


From about. 


From before. 
From behind. 


From betwixt 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 



25 



In. 
Into. 



Inside. In respect to. 

In consideration of. In place of. 
Instead of. 



Like. 



Maugre. 



Minus. 



Near. 


Nigh. 
Notwithstanding. 


Next. 


Of. 


Opposite. 


Out of. 


Off. 


Outside. 


Out from. 


On. 


Over. 

On account of. 


Over against. 


Past. 


Pending. 


Per. 


Plus. 


Previous 


to. 


Respecting. 


Round. 
Regarding. 


Round about. 


Since. 


Save. 
Saving. 


Sans. 


Till. 


Touching. 


Through. 


To. 


Toward. 
Towards. 


Throughout. 


Under. 


Unlike. 


Up. 


Underneath. 


Until. 
Unto. 


Upon. 



Versus. 



Via. 



Within. 



Without. 



With. 



26 THE PRINCIPLES OP 



CO-ORDIXATE CONJUNCTIONS. 

The following is a list of the more common coordinate con- 
junctions: And, also, as, but, even, or, nor, else, now, other- 
wise, so, then, therefore, wherefore, yet, as well as, still, 
nevertheless. 



SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 

The words most commonly used as subordinate conjunc- 
tions are: That, but that, as, because, for, if, unless, lest, 
though, although, except, since, than, provided, providing, 
seeing that, notwithstanding, inasmuch as, for as much as, 
save that. 



CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 

Either — or, neither — nor, or — or, whether — or, although— yet, 
although — nevertheless, as — as, as — so, if— then, so — as, so — 
that, nor — nor, though — still, both — and, not only — but also. 

[Note. — In expressions of equality, as-as is generally used, 
while in negative expressions so-as is proper; thus, "It is as 
warm to-day as it was yesterday." " It is not so warm to- 
day as it was yesterday." If the negative adverb is not used, 
so-as may express equality ; thus, " So soon as the taxes were 
paid the apportionment was made."] 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 27 



ANTIQUE FORMS. 

The verbs to come, to meet, to go, to rise and to arrive may 
have the auxiliary to he instead of to have. These verbs have 
no voice. Such forms of expression are antique. 

Examples. — "The Lord is risen indeed." "The time was 
now come when Washington desired to resign his commission." 



WORDS USED IN DIFFERENT CONSTRUCTIONS. 
About. 

Adverb. — "How was such a condition brought about? " 
Preposition. — "Walk about Zion, and go round about her." 
" — "Just as the army was about to march, the 

President arrived." 

Above. 

Adjective. — "The heavens above, the earth beneath." 
Noun. — "Angelic messengers from above." 
Adverb. — " Faith looks above for comfort." 
Preposition. — "Above the clouds on upward wings could I 
but fly." 

Adieu. 

Interjection.— "Adieu! ye waterfalls, adieu." 

Noun. — "Adieus and farewells are a sound unknown." 



28 



THE PRINCIPLES OF 



After. 

Adjective.— " But that was an after thought." 
Adverb. — " All left the camp soon after." 
Conj. Adverb. — " The} r did not buy after real estate rose." 
Preposition.— "After the charge to the jury, the court ad- 
journed." 

Alike. 

Adjective.— "The bells sound alike." 

— " The children look alike." 

— " The silks feel alike." 

— " The plums taste alike." 

— "The flowers smell alike." 

— "All Sundays seem alike." 

— " The twins become alike as they grow older." 

— " The courses of study are alike." 

— " The sisters are considered alike." 

— " The bills are supposed to be alike." 
Adverb. — " All the soldiers are drilled alike." 
" — " Not all pupils read alike." 
•« — " The victims were alike unfortunate." 
" — " Those rifles do not shoot alike." 

All. 

Noun. — " The flood swept away their all." 

" — " All must be held equally responsible." 
Adjective. — " All booksmust be returned at once." 
Adverb. — " He rode all unarmed and he rode all alone." 
" — " All along life's pathway." 

Any. 

Noun. — "Any who wish may remain." 

Adjective. — " Has the prisoner any friends ? " 

Adverb. — "He will not be kept any longer in confinement." 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 29 

Around. 

Adjective. — "One look around was sufficient." 

Adverb. — " Wouldst thou behold a beautiful peninsula, look 

around." 
Preposition.— "Around the fire, one wintry night, the farmer's 

rosy children sat." 

As. 

Relative Pronoun.—" Such as I have, give I unto thee." 

— " A child is inclined to do the same as his 
father." 
" —"As I was saying, Mr. Smith's Christian 

name was John." 
" — "As we supposed, only the advance guard 

had arrived." 
" — "As has been said repeatedly from this 
platform, the Constitution makes no 
provision for such an emergency." 
Adverb and Conj. Adverb.— "As many as [many] I have I will 
give you." 
«« — "The Father is as just as He is 

merciful." 
44 — "Are not the men of this genera- 
tion as wise as [wise] the an- 
cients? " 
Conj. Adverb. — "As we passed the buoy, we could hear the 
warning bell." 
" — " As the waters rose in the valleys, the inhabi- 
tants were driven to higher ground." 
Conjunction.— " As the committee has invited me, I intend to 
accept." 
— " Your services as clerk are no longer needed." 



30 THE PRINCIPLES OF 

" — "We read of Lincoln as a martyr, of Caesar as 

a conqueror.' 
" — " As a citizen of this state, I shall object." 

Part of Complex Preposition.— " As to the 'silver plank,' the 

speaker had nothing to say." 
11 " — " As to who the Mound Build- 

ers were, history has little 
to say." 

[Xote. — As is often used as a "conjunctive adjective," and 
should be parsed as such.] 

1 Shall I take that essay as it is, or wait till you have 
copied it ?" 

" Will you wear that coat as it is, or have the tailor change 
it?" 

" The prisoner was not as he seemed — hopeful and cheerful." 

"Just as I am, without one plea." 

"Remember, friend, as you pass by, 
As you are now, so once was I ; 
But as I am, so you must be — 
Prepare for death and follow me." 

Before. 

Adverb. — "Not lost, but gone before." 

Conjunctive Adverb. — "The work will be completed before the 

sun goes down." 
Preposition. — "The pupils must finish their tasks before noon." 

Below. 

Noun.— "Ominous sounds came from below." 

Adjective.— "The towering peaks above, the fertile plains 

below." 
Adverb. — "The winding river, like a silver band, was seen 

below." 
Preposition. — "Clay is found along the lake shore below the 

sand." 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 31 

Beneath. 

Noun. — " A thick fog rose constantly from beneath." 
Adjective. — "The heavens above, the earth beneath." 
Preposition. — "Beneath those rugged elms, that yew-tree's 

shade." 
Adverb. — " It matters little whether the hand is held above or 

beneath." 

Best. 

Noun. — "The best is usually the cheapest." 

Adjective. — "Aim to follow the best advice." 

Adverb. — "These copies suit us best." 

Adverbial Phrase.—" This typewriter suits the best of all." 

Both. 

Noun. — "The privilege of purchasing both or either was 

granted." 
Adjective. — "It is well to study both sides of a question." 
Conjunction. — " Franklin at that time was both old and wise." 

But. 

Part of Complex Adjective. — "A king is but a man." 

Adverb. — " We have but five examples." 

Preposition. — " All but five have departed form earth." 

— "There is no fireside, howsoe'er defended, but 

[what] has one vacant chair." 
Part of Complex Preposition. — " Perfect bedlam would prevail 

but for the rules." 

By. 

Adverb. — " Priest and Levite passed by on the other side." 
Preposition.— "A wide-spreading ash stood by the altar." 

Close. 

Adjective.— "The hall seems close." 



32 THE PRINCIPLES OF 

Adverb. — "They followed elose upon our heels." 

11 — "Close to the realm where angels had their birth, 
just on the border of the spirit land." 

Each. 

Adjective.— " The tourists visited each tomb." 
Adjective Used as Noun. — " The children loved each other." 
" " " — " Let each esteem others better than 

himself.'' 

Else. 

Adjective.— " Who else has completed his work ? " 
Adverb. — " How else can we secure the end desired ? " 
Conjunction. — "Thou desirest not sacrifice, else would I 
give it." 

Enough. 

Noun. — "And thou shalt have enough and to spare." 
Adjective. — "The children have had pleasure enough for once.' 
Adverb.— "They have played long enough." 

Even. 

Noun. — " The even was far spent." 

Adjective. — "Even numbers are divisible by two." 

Adverb. — "Even his fortune was snatched away." 

Conjunction. — "And God, even our own God, shall bless us." 

Except. 

Verb. — " Would you not except present company ? " 
Preposition. — " They have none except what is in use." 
Conjunction.—" Except ye repent ye shall all likewise perish." 
" — " Except the Lord build the house, they labor in 

vain who build." 






ENGLISH SYNTAX. 33 

Far. 

Noun. — "The soldiers are marching from near and from far." 
Adjective. — "The prodigal son went into a far country." 
Adverb.— "He had wandered far away." 

" — " How far can an army march under a broiling sun 
without food and drink? " 

Fast. 

Noun. — "Many prefer a fast to a feast." 
Adjective. — "The fast mail has passed the city." 
Adverb. — "Seize him, and bind him fast." 

" — " Fast by the throne obsequious Fame resides." 
Verb. — "Many Christians fast at stated seasons." 

First. 

Noun.— "The first shall be last, and the last first." 
Adjective.— " Who is first?" 
Adverb. — "Who strikes first ? " 

For. 

Preposition. — " Welcome ! We were looking for you." 

Part of Complex Preposition. — "As for me and my house, we 

will serve the Lord." 
" — "But for irrigation, agricul- 

ture would not be profit- 
able in that section of the 
country." 

Introductory Preposition. — " For me to labor and for you to 

be idle would be unjust." 

Conjunction. — " Come, for all things are now ready." 

Full. 

Noun. — "Appoint the day at the full of the moon." 
Adjective. — "The lecturer was greeted with a full house." 



34 THE PRINCIPLES OF 

Adverb. — " Full well they laughed with counterfeited glee." 

" — " Full many a gem of purest ray serene." 
Verb. — "The manufacturers full the cloth." 

Hard. 

Adjective. — "Sandstone is not so hard as granite." 
Adverb. — " You should not bear on too hard with the pen." 
'' — "Hard by yon wood, now smiling as in scorn." 

However. 

Adverb. — "However far one may see with the telescope, 
only the practised eye can take valuable 
observations." 
" — " However, the party will undoubtedly be united at 
the election." 

His. 

Personal or Possessive Pronoun. — Mine, vours, ours, hers, 

his, theirs, etc. 

[Note. — If we regard the above pronouns as " possessive pro- 
nouns," person, gender and number should not be ascribed to 
them, but case only.] 

How. 

Adjective. — " How are you, Ned ? " 
" — "How is Ned?" 

— " How do you do, Ned ? " 
" — " How do you feel, Ned ? " 

" — "How does Ned look ? " 
" — " How does Ned seem ? " 

" — " How is Ned considered ? " 

" — "How does quinine taste?" 

" — " How does the rose smell?" 

" — "How does the music sound ? " 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 35 

Adverb. — ''How does Ned play ? " 

" — "How does Ned progress ? " 
" — "How does Ned succeed ? " 
" — "How is Ned going? " 
" — " How was Ned invited ? " 
" — "How' was Ned informed ? " 
— "How old is Ned?" 
Conjunctive Adverb. — ' Will }'ou tell me how I can solve this 
problem?" 
" — " Please to show me how [I am] to pick 

the lock." 
" — "Most pioneers learn by experience 
how [one is] to make money in the 
wilderness." 

111. 

Noun. — " The flesh is heir to many ills." 

Adjective. — "Are you ill? You look ill, and I think, must 
feel ill." 

Adverb. — "Ladies could ill afford to dispense with the sewing- 
machine." 

Indeed. 

Adverb. — "It is indeed sad." 

" — " Indeed, we had not heard ofit." 
Interjection. — " Indeed ! we had not heard of it." 

Late. 

Adjective. — "Late suppers are not conducive to health." 

" — " The fast train is very late." 

Adverb. — "You have come very late to the station." 
Part of Adverbial Phrase. — "Of late the stores have been 

closing at six." 



36 THE PRINCIPLES OF 

Last. 

Noun. — "The last of the Mohicans." 

Adjective. — "The last edition is greatly improved." 

Part of Adverbial Phrase. — " At last, peace reigns in Warsaw." 

Adverb.—" Who finishes last is often best." 

Like. 

Noun.— "When lo! a flood, the like of which no man had ever 
seen, came rolling over the parching earth." 
" — "All mortals have their likes and dislikes." 
Adjective. — "The tree looks like an oak." 

u — "The note sounds like that of the mocking-bird." 

u — "The flower smells like a rose." 

a — "The medicine tastes like quinine." 

— " The paper feels like cloth." 
" — "The child is like her mother." 

u — (i 'pj ie child jj as become like her mother." 
« — "The child is said to be like her mother." 

Adverb. — "The volunteer soldiers fight like veterans." 
" — "They march like recruits." 

— " The actress plays like a star." 
" — " The children chat like magpies." 
" — " The man walks like a cripple." 

[Note. — Many authors prefer to consider like a preposition. 
It makes no difference as far as correct speech is concerned. If 
it is parsed as a preposition, the phrase introduced by it is 
adjective or adverbial, precisely as indicated above.] 

Low. 

Noun. — "The high and the low, the rich and the poor — all are 

equal before the law." 
Adjective. — "The mountain side was nearly covered with an 

unhealthv growth of low trees and shrubs." 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 37 

Adverb. — "The clouds hang low o'er the lake, portending a 

storm." 
Verb. — "The cattle low about the lane as if asking shelter 

from the coming storm." 

More. 

Noun. — "And who could ask for more?" 
Adjective. — " Our navy has ordered more iron-clads." 
Adverb. — "Weep no more for the departed." 
Part of Adverbial Phrase.— "The more we read Dickens the 

better we like him." 

Much. 

Noun. — "To whom much is given, of him much will be 

required." 
Adjective. — "The forests of Maine produce much valuable 

lumber." 
Adverb. — "The officers feel much troubled over the mistake of 

the soldiers." 

Nay. 

Noun. — " Let your communications be yea, yea, nay, nay." 
Adverb. — "Nay, I can not consent." 

No. 

Noun. — " Did he say no?" 

Adverb. — "No, he did not answer." 

" — "We shall go no further to-day." 
Adjective. — "No sound of hammer was heard about the 
temple." 

Notwithstanding. 

Preposition. — "We shall take exercise, notwithstanding the 
advice given " 



38 THE PRINXIPLES OF 

Conjunction. — "The train waited, notwithstanding theorders 
forbade." 

Adverb. — " My lad, how did you happen to fall ?" " Notwith- 
standing! " 

Now. 

Noun. — "In one eternal now/' 
Adverb. — "Come now, for I am ready." 
Conjunction. — "Now, Barabbas was a robber." 

Only. 

Noun. — "The great original and only." 
Adjective. — " Ladies only are admitted." 

— " Only swans sing when dying." 
— "Youth only are invited." 
" — " The merchant deals in dry goods only." 

" — " Only pines flourish in such soil." 

Adverb. — " Man is born only to die." 

it — "Things only slightly connected should not be 

crowded into one sentence." 
" — " Only sing, and I shall be satisfied." 
" — " Only in the morning is the lark's note heard." 
— "They have only five books left." 
Part of Complex Adjective. — "Only an armor-bearer." 

" " " — " Only a pansy." 

Conjunction. — u The same communication was forwarded to 
the commissioners, only it was in another 
hand-writing." 
[Note. — The use of only as a conjunction is not generally 
approved.] 
Ambiguous. — "Assure me only, and I shall be satisfied." 

" — "Take a walk only in the morning, and your 

health will improve." 
— " He only waved his hands." 
— " Swans only sing when dying." 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 39 

[Note. — The use of only is often attended with ambiguity. 
The emphasis upon the words spoken may prevent the 
ambiguity v while in written speech it is impossible to avoid it. 
Rules laid down as to the position of only in written language 
are mostly failures.] 

Ought. 

Part of Complex Verb. — "The heirs ought to be satisfied with 
the division of the property." 

[Note. — Ought to be satisfied should be regarded as a com- 
plex verb. In the course of time to will, undoubtedly, be 
dropped, as in the case of shall, should and other auxiliaries.] 

Over. 

Adverb. — " Come over at your leisure." 
Preposition. — "The emigrants drove over the mountains." 
Part of Complex Preposition.— " A rugged peak suddenly 

appeared over against 
the sky." 

Past. 

Noun. — "The past, at least, is secure." 
Adjective. — " Past time can never be recovered." 
Adverb. — "The procession moved slowly past." 
Preposition.— "The ship sailed past the fort." 

Right, 

Noun. — " And is it true that might makes right ? " 

" — " The right does not always prevail." 
Adjective. — " Right acts are always to be commended." 

" — " If thy right hand offend thee, cut it off." 

Adverb. — " The engine does not run right to-day." 

« — "The German emperor was received right royally in 
England." 



40 THE PRINCIPLES OF 

Round. 

Noun. — " On the third round the favorite horse distanced all 

the rest." 
Adjective — " The round mast is the strongest of all." 
Adverb. — "A wheel turns round." 
Preposition— " The people stood round him." 
Verb— " Our little life is rounded with a sleep." 

Save. 

Verb. — " Save me, Hubert ! " 

Preposition. — "All were alike condemned by this tribunal, 
save those who had secretly promised to 
recant." 
Part of Complex Conjunction.— "And all the air a solemn 

stillness holds, save that 
from yonder ivy-mantled 
tower the moping o wl does 
to the moon complain." 

Since. 

Adjective. — "And all the generations since have risen up to 

call Him blessed." 
Adverb.— " The children were much interested at the time in 

Dickens' stories, and have often referred to 

them since." 
Conjunctive Adverb. — "The congregation had not heard Dr. 
Talmage since he returned from 
the holy land." 
Conjunction. — "The committee will invite Mr. Spurgeon to 

lecture, since the demand is so general." 
Preposition. — "The gentleman has resided in Canada sincehis 

majority." 






ENGLISH SYNTAX. 41 

So. 

Noun.— " Aha ! I told you so ! " 

" — " Really ! don't you think so ? " 

11 — "You were warned not to take the risk ; if you do so, 
you must blame only yourself." 
Adjective. — "The climate of California is healthful, I am told. 
It is so." 
" — "Do you not think I am better in this climate? 

You certainly look so." 
" — "-The winters of Canada have been represented as 
long and wearisome, but I have not found them 
so." 
" — "It is quite cool. It is so." 
Adverb. — "Minnie writes very plainly. She does so." 
<< — (< /pjjg diamond is so hard as to cut glass." 
" — "Speak so as to be heard." 
Conjunction. — " So we were left galloping, Joris and I." 

" — "So you have not yet visited the Garfield 

memorial?" 

Than. 

Conjunction. — " I would rather be right than be president." 
— " Franklin was older than Washington." 
— "Jacob loved Joseph more than any of his 

brethren." 
— "No other fruit than grapes can be produced 

with profit." 
— "No one else than the initiated can appreciate 

such a situation." 

[Note.— Than is a subordinate conjunction, used always with 
the comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs, and 
with other and else. It is followed by a clause, often elliptical, 
in all cases except when that clause should be introduced by 



42 THE PRINCIPLES OF 

who. B} r a mere blunder, whom crept into use instead of who, 
and good writers now follow the mistake. This has led most 
authors to regard than as a preposition in cases like the 
following. 

"John B. Gough, than whom no more popular orator has 
graced the platform, was a self-made man." 

"Washington and Franklin, than whom no wiser states- 
men have lived, were typical Americans." 

That. 

Adjective. — "That steamer goes to Detroit." 

Relative Pronoun. — " Ye that are faultless need no reproof." 

Conjunction. — "Ye would not come unto me that ye might 

have life." 
Conjunctive Adverb.— " Pupils should read so that they may 

be understood." 

The. 

Adjective.— " The works of Plato." 

Part of Adverbial Phrase. — " The more we study astronomy, 

the more wonderful seems the 

universe." 
Part of Complex Adjective. — "That garment looks all the 

worse for the wear." 

Then, 

Noun. — " Till then, nor is my boasting vain, 

Till then I boast a Saviour slain." 
\dverb. — "The congregation then gave the 4 Chautauqua 

salute.' " 
Conjunction. — " If he do not sign the paper, then he certainly 

will not be held." 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 43 

There. 

Adverb.—" Who goes there ? " 

" — " There was a man of Adam's race." 
Interjection. — " There ! " 

Till. 

Noun.— "The money had been extracted from the till." 
Verb. — " The farmers till the soil." 
Preposition. — " Can you not stay till winter ? " 
Conjunctive Adverb.— "You may remain till you have com- 
pleted the work." 

Well. 

Noun. — "A cool draught from the well." 
Adjective. — "Are you well ? You look well." 
Adverb. — "All like to visit a well regulated school." 

" — " Well, what did you think of the painting ? " 
Verb.— "The sparkling water wells up from among the rocks." 
Interjection. — " Well ! " 

What. 

Double Relative. — " I heard what was said." 
Interrogative Pronoun. — " What troubles you? " 
Adjective. — " What author is most popular in England ? " 
Interjection. — " What ! is thy servant a dog ? " 
Adverb. — " ' What with my brats and sickly wife,' 
Quoth Dick, 'I'm almost tired of life.' " 

When. 

Noun. — "Since when has he been the watch-dog of the 

treasury?" 
Adverb. — " When will the boat arrive ? " 
Conjunctive Adverb.—" Come when the bugle sounds." 



44 THE PRINCIPLES OF 

While. 

Noun. — "It was scarcely worth the while to put forth energy 
in such a cause." 

Verb. — "And while away thy time beneath the classic elms." 

Conjunctive Adverb. — "While Thee I seek Protecting Power, 
Be my vain wishes stilled." 

Conjunction. — " The children of the country are blessed with 
pure air and exercise, and consequent health 
and vigor; while those of the city often 
pass their childhood without any knowledge 
of these blessings." 

Which. 

Double Relative — " We saw which he took." 

Relative Pronoun. — "The laws which the ancient Romans 

enacted have had an effect on all 

later nations." 
Interrogative Pronoun.— " Which do you prefer — Romola, or 

Adam Bede?" 
Adjective. — "Which route to the seashore is the most direct ? " 

Worse. 

Noun. — " For better, for worse." 

Adjective. — "The last days of that man are worse than the 

first." 
Adverb. — "The lad is doing worse since he withdrew himself 

from the restrictions-of home." 

Worth. 

Noun. — "Worth makes the man, and want of it the fellow." 
Adjective.— "The game is not worth the candle." 
Adverb.— "Woe worth the da v." 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 45 

Whether. 

Interrogative Pronoun. — "Whether is greater, the gold or the 
temple which sane tifieth the gold ? ' ' 

Conjunction. — "It matters not whether you come in summer 
or in winter." 

Yet. 

Adverb. — "Washington yet lives in the hearts of his grateful 

people." 
Conjunction. — "Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him." 
Part of Complex Adverb.— "The party has not visited Niagara 

as yet." 






46 THE PRINCIPLES OF 



VIOLATIONS OF THE PRINCIPLES OF SYNTAX. 



I. SUBJECT OMITTED. 

11 Twas Franklin brought the lightning from the clouds.' 1 

" In the arctic winter night there is often a bright auroral 
light illuminates the northern sky." 

"There is no wise man commences to build a house without 
first consulting the cost." 

" There is man v a poor woman works night and day with 
her needle to keep the wolf from her door, but makes no com- 
plaint." 

"There was a tramp called at the house to ask for bread." 

"There is not a sparrow falls to the ground without His 
notice." 

"The calm in which he was born, and lasted ><> long, was 
favorable to his genius." 

II. WRONG CASE. 

"Whom do men say that I, the Son of Man, am?" 

"They that honor me I will honor, but they that despise me 
I shall lightly esteem." 

" Let not he that putteth on his armor boast, but he that 
takcth it off." 

" He that cometh unto me I will in no wise cast out." 

"The whole need not a physician, but them that are sick." 



; 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 47 

"A general places great confidence in veterans whom lie 
knows have been fearless under the attack of the enemy." 

"The officers did not report whom the committee were." 

" And whom did he say it was ? " 

" Do you remember Mrs. Smith, she that was Ellen Snow? " 

"My friends approve my decision, especially them who are 
best acquainted with the circumstances." 

" Now, therefore, we will make a covenant, thee and me." 

" Who do } T ou think hin. to be ? " 

" I am him who you invited." 

"Who broke that window? It wasn't me." 

III. NO PREDICATE. 

" The rules for the use of the comma, had they been observed, 
many ambiguous expressions would have been definite." 

" Religion, although sneered at by infidels through a life 
time, they often beg for its ministrations on the death-bed." 

IV. POSSESSIVE. 

"Ladies boots and shoes for sale here." 
4 Mens and childrens furnishing goods." 
"Gent's sitting room." 
"Lady's parlor." 

"Eagle's nests are generally built on cliffs." 
" Shakespeare and Milton's works." 

"The young man took neither his father nor his mother's 
advice." 
"Mr. Brown's the merchant's store." 
' Cowper's the poet's fame." 
"' Waverly' was Scott's the poet's first work." 
" Napoleon's career as a general's closed at Waterloo." 
"Much depends upon you making the attempt." 



48 THE PRINCIPLES OF 

" I am opposed to my brother going to Lynn." 

" We never heard of him being arrested." 

" We shall not insist on them calling on the strangers." 

"Will you be kind enough to call at Clark's the druggist i 5 " 

V. WROXG PLURAL. 

" Their healths suffered from the climate." 
" For our parts, we desired peace above all else." 
" Our institutions must be preserved for descendant's sakes." 
"Professor La Rue will give instructions in French and 
Italian." 

"Every one should occupy their own desk." 

"Any person feels chagrined at 'giving themselves away." 

"No one should laugh at their own wit." 

VI. REDUNDANT WORDS. 

"His servants ye are to whom ye obey." 

"My comrades shall want for nothing which I can supply." 
" The soldiers had good reasons for their making a forced 
march." 

"Upon his returning, he found disaster and ruin." 

"Accept of my best wishes." 

" Where are you going to?" 

" Have you got a knife to lend ? " 

"No, I have not got any." 

VII. WRONG PREPOSITION. 

" Can you not comply to my request ? " 

" Who cannot profit from the counsel oJ a friend ? " 

"Dr. Phillips Brooks will be consecrated during < )et<>l>er." 

"The familv are now bereft from all their friends." 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 49 

11 A report so derogatory of his character is unjust." 

" Did he die of violence or by fever? " 

" He was accused with acting unjustly." 

"All should cultivate a taste of reading and study." 

" The prisoner is a different man than he was when arrested." 

VIII. BAD COMBINATIONS. 

"The cars were soon lost sight of." 

11 These things must be put a stop to." 

"The needy should be taken care of by the rich." 

" When will the horrors of war be put an end to ? " 

IX. NON-AGREEMENT. 

" My brothers and I have finished their lessons." 
"Everybody should occupy their own desks." 
"A person may make themselves happ\* without wealth." 
"In matters of religion, everyone must answer for them- 
selves." 
" If any one has been omitted, let them rise." 
" Either the merchant or his clerk will give their attention 
to the matter." 
"If thy hand or thy foot offend thee, cut them off." 
" No one in their natural state are without sin." 
" The animals of whom you spoke are from Africa." 
" The people which he saw were very kind." 

X. IMPROPER USE OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 

"The officer acted agreeable to his instructions." 
"Agreeable to my promise, I make this statement to the 

court." 
" The train had scarce started when the boat arrived at the 

dock." 



50 THE PRINCIPLES OF 

"The operation was exceeding well performed." 

"Grammar should be studied previous to rhetoric." 

"You are looking badly." 

" 1 have felt badlv since having la grippe." 

" You look dreadful sick." 

" I did not think he is that old." 

" I would not give that much for a score of chances." 

" There are not that many pages in the whole book." 

"No person can jump that high." 

" Have you read this far?" 

" I don't hardly think you can accomplish it in an hour. 1 

" The man couldn't scarcely step into his carriage." 

XI. COMPARISON FAULTY. 

" Your work is more periect than your brother's." 

" A more superior work has not been seen.' r 

"He is the strongest of the two, but not the wisest." 

"Iron is more useful than any metal." 

" She is more amiable than her other sisters." 

" Of all his brothers, he has the most talent." 

" Eve was the fairest of all her daughters." 

" Which of the three brothers is the stronger?" 

"Socrates was wiser than any Athenian of his day." 

"Which has read the farthest, you or Jane? " 

" Have you no other books but novels ? " 

"They intend to invite no one else but Ned." 

"Nothing else but gold will satisfy him." 

"This is no other but the gate of Paradise." 

XII. NUMBER FAULTY. 

" Those sort of men are not to be trusted." 
" I like these kind of oranges." 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 51 

" The band has been playing this two hours." 
"Cord wood is cut four foot long." 

XIII. AGREEMENT OF VERBS. 

" If thou would be healthy, thou should be temperate." 
"Thou, Lord, heareth all our words." 
"A union of interests prepare men for friendship." 
" Not one of the ships were fully freighted." 
11 Every one of the company were fully delighted." 
"Mary, with her sisters, are studying French." 
"Three years' interest were paid on the note." 
"The construction of railroads and steamboats occupy 
many laborers." 
"Time and tide waits for no man." 
11 Is virtue and piety in all respects the same ? " 
" Man's happiness or misery depend largely upon himself." 
" Every shrub and every flower proclaim a creator." 
"Neither wealth nor poverty are without temptation." 
"Ignorance and negligence has produced this evil." 
"The court have, at last, adjourned, after a long session.' 
" The club were composed of young men only." 

XIV. WRONG VERBS OR FORMS OF VERBS. 

"The child was laying at the point of death." 
" The invalid laid back in her chair to rest." 
"The foundations of the cathedral have been lain for many 
months." 

" Do not allow the child to lay upon the wet ground." 
" The fortunes of the pioneers have ebbed and flown." 
" The bread has not yet raised." 
" Do you think we will be tardy ? " 
"He shall not help me— I will drown ! " 



52 THE PRINCIPLES OF 

"Many pupils come late yesterday." 

" Has the second bell rang ? " 

"The essay was wrote under difficulties." 

"Our friends intended to have met us." 

" Ye will not come unto me that ye might have life." 

" It was my purpose to have visited Paris." 

" When will we reach the city ? " 

"By that transaction we will lose most of our property." 

XV. DOUBLE NEGATIVE. 

"There cannot be nothing more insignificant than vanitv." 
" It wouldn't do no good to appeal to the government." 
"He hasn't no influence with them." 
"You can't buy no more at that figure." 

XVI. GENERAL TRUTHS. 

" The atheist professed to believe that there was no God." 

"The lecturer proved that God was unchangeable and 
eternal." 

" The chemist proved to his class that iron was softer than 
steel, and that gold was softer than copper." 

"We had read in the textbook that there was always a 
'rainy season' in the tropics." 

"The Englishman told his friend that his own government 
was a limited monarchy." 

"They had read that the winters were long and the summers 
were short in Canada." 

"We were told that the Niagara flowed north and was the 
outlet of Lake Erie." 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 53 

XVII. SOMEWHAT MIXED. 

" He should not keep a horse that cannot ride." 

"He involved a friend in a troublesome law-suit that had 
long supported him." 

" The animals were conveyed in boats that were accustomed 
to water." 

" Wanted: A boy to take care of horses of a religious turn of 
mind." 

"Wanted: A saddle horse for a young lady that has been 
trained to rack and to lope, and that will not kick." 

XVIII. MISCELLANEOUS. 

" I doubt if you can accomplish it." 

"We cannot deny but he has acted honorably." 

"Who shall we send in his place ? " 

" What kind of a pear is that ? " 

" What sort of a crowd does he prefer ? " 

" I do not doubt but the boat will be in season." 

" How my head hurts me ! " 

" Doesn't your eye hurt ? " 

" England insists upon every man doing their Huty." 

"The speaker declared that all efforts to establish such a 
rule had and would fail." 

" I have no objection to it being done." 

"This was owing to the objection not being made at the 
time." 

"Who do you think him to be ? " 

" Whom do you suspect that he is ? " 

" What kind of a fluid was made use of? " 

" Come in the room a moment." 

" The child must have fell in the well." 

" Where will I meet vou ? " 



54 THE PRINCIPLES OF 

"You walk like you are lame." 

" They looked like they had laid there all night." 

"Try and reach the church in season." 

"The sailor walked off of the wharf." 

" The apple tastes like it has been frozen." 

" The}- that honor me I will honor." 

"I am partial to those kind of pictures." 

" My fingers is most froze." 

" He does not deserve the name of a gentleman." 

"Ned is a better penman than any man in his class." 

" Will I find you at home this evening ? " 

"Not one of all them boys were able to answer the question." 

" He don't succeed any better than us." 

"We didn't expect you to stay that long." 

" Have you read this far in the book ? " 

" That is all the farther I have gone." 

" He is not that old." 

" I have less oranges than you." 

" The child didn't put nothing in the water." 

" The ' Gazette ' has the largest circulation of any paper in 
the city." 

"The 'Gazette' has a larger circulation than any paper in 
the city." 

"The 'Gazette,' of all other papers, has the largest circula- 
tion." 

"Mr. Gladstone has the largest library of any man in the 
city." 

" The ' Leaflet' is the most widely read of any publication." 

" The man is a better writer than a singer." 

" I intended to have drawn some money yesterday." 

"I expect you had a pleasant time in the country." 

"That is either a man or a woman's voice." 

"The boy don't understand the question." 



ENGLISH SXNTAX. 55 

"The rose and the violet both smell sweetly." 
"I don't hardly think he will come to-night." 
"Be real quick, if tou wish me to wait." 
" All felt real sorry for the child." 
"Those pupils are well posted." 
" Your home looks nicely." 
"Let anybody guess this riddle if they can." 
" Which do you like best, tea or coffee ? " 
" And he that was dead sat up and spoke." 
"Two negatives destroy one another." 
" The red and white flag were used as signals." 
" I had no thought but what the story was true." 
" What sort of a farm does the man own ? " 
"What kind of a tree is that yonder? " 
" Can I leave my books on your desk ? " 
" He says he shall try and help you." 
" The river has raised three feet." 
"Speak slower and more distinct." 

" The profits will be divided between the five brothers." 
" There was a long interval between each part." 
" Place a comma between each word of a series." 
"Nothing else but salt will preserve it." 
"I will be eighteen next birthday." 
"It isn't but a short distance." 
" I wish that I was a musician." 
"No one ever heard of him running for an office." 
"I never realized before how short life really was." 
"The children are not learning much, I don't think.'' 
" At what hotel are you stopping ? " 
" The cars will not stop only when the bell rings." 
"John and Jessie have got married. Rev, Winters performed 
the ceremony." 



56 THE PRINCIPLES OF 

"The speaker emphasized the truth that a given body 
weighed more at the sea-side than on a mountain." 
"Not one of the ancients believed that the earth was round." 
"Did not the doctor say that the measles was contagious ? " 
11 1 have seen the boys Last week." 
"Did you work that example yet ? " 
" I can tell you who he resembles." 
" You had better lay down and try and sleep." 
" Who did you give the flowers to?" 
" Actions speak plainer than words." 
"I thought I would have died of thirst." 
"No laws are as good as the English laws." 
"I intended to have inquired this morning." 
" How far did he say it was from Boston to New York ? " 
" Did you say you were a Frenchman ? " 
" The farmer has neither sold the oats nor the corn." 
" Do you think there is a chance of me securing a few shares ?" 
" There will be no advantage in us disputing any longer." 
*' Webster and Worcester's dictionary are different." 
"There are generally a good man}- go from curiosity." 
" Tell me which of the two are the largest." 
" She is older than me, but I am nearly as tall as she." 
" Whom does he think it could have been ? " 
" You cannot tell his i's from his e's." 
"What sort of a farm do you own?" 
" Can I leave my coat in this room ?" 
"They asked if they could leave school early." 
"There was a long interval between each part." 
" Why don't you turn the leaves like I do?" 
11 You walk like you were lame." 
"Nothing else but paint will preserve it." 
"See if the gentlemen are ready." 
"There were no less than ten errors." 



ENGLISH SYNTAX. 57 

" I had no idea but what the story was true." 

"It is very rarely that a person will accuse himself of crime." 

"John don't think it is their's." 

" He had not hardly a minute to spare." 

" She was the youngest of two sisters." 

"You are as bad as them." 

" Henry told you and I to stay." 

"You may go with James and I." 

" Was there many there ? " 

" You was there yesterday." 

" It is easier said than done." 

" We felt comfortably all night." 

" Neither of us three were present." 

" Ralph is a better penman than any boy in his class." 

" Will we find you at home this evening ? " 

" I hope we will be in time to get good seats." 

" The bread would not raise so near the fire." 

"The books had probably laid there all night." 

" He was quite ill with the grip." 

" What is the distance between each post." 

" Each of the prisoners were allowed a separate cell." 

"He has the most lucrative position of any officer in the 
city." 

" Euclid Avenue has the deepest lawns of any street in Cleve- 
land." 

" I doubt if he will arrive to-day." 

"I doubt not but a severe battle has been fought." 

"We do not doubt but that his proposition is sincere." 

" No one will deny but the officer led his command bravely." 

"See if you can mount the bicycle." 

"No one else but the members of the cabinet was admitted." 

" Do you think I will be compelled to make good the loss ?" 

"I know I will be too late for the train." 



58 THE PRLNCIPLES OF 

"Franklin proved that lightning and electricity were the 

same." 

"The pupils did not think that the French language w 

easy to learn." 
"The ship is laying at anchor just outside the harbor.'* 
"Albany contained at that time some two or three hundred 

houses and twenty-five hundred inhabitants, all standing 

with their gable ends to the street." 
"Who is that gentleman ordering a drink with one eye?" 
"Such a course will tend to eventually undermine his 

health." 
" I soon discovered that it was not her who I supposed it 

to be." 
"We would like an introduction to the prince." 
"We would be pleased to meet him at the reception." 
" Will we wear our hats ? " 

"Had you not been taught that the Niagara flowed north'" 
" Between every paragraph you should leave less than a line." 
" How different those children are than we expected ! " 
"My sons-in-laws farms are near the lake." 
" Longfellow is read more than any American poet." 
" Whittier of all other poets is most patriotic." 
" Will we continue to make mistakes ?" 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



003 244 491 A 



